Druids

Druids who worked as judges, teachers & priests were the members of the learned class among the ancient Celts. We get the old druid records from the 3rd century BCE. Their name is expected to come from a Celtic word that indicates "knower of the oak tree." We don't have too much about the druids because they kept no record of themselves.

Julius Caesar is the major information source about the Druids. According to him, two men groups were there in Gaul, held in honor, including the Druids and the noblemen (equites). He also said that Druids were in charge of public and private sacrifices. Therefore, several young men went to them to get instructions. Not only they judged every public and private quarrel, but also they decreed penalties. If any person did not abide by the decree, he was barred from sacrifice. People consider this the gravest of punishments.

Previously, druids made one person chief among them. After his death, they appointed another person. Sometimes, a few Druids had equal merits. In such cases, Druids voted. They assembled once every year at a sacred place in the territory of the Carnutes, the center of all Gaul. When all of them used to assemble, the legal disputes were submitted to their judgment.

As per the record of Caesar, they abstained from warfare & they did not pay any tribute. Several people participated in the order voluntarily after being attracted by the privileges. Druids studied old verse, natural philosophy, astronomy, and the lore of the gods. Some ancient druids invested about 20 years in their training. According to them, the soul is immortal; when a person dies, the soul will pass from one person to another.

Druids in Mythology:

In Irish folklore, they lead a prominent role, serving Lords and kings as top-ranking priest-counselors because they had mystical abilities. Being Cathbad is the best example of these. In this regard, you should know that the presence of the chief druid in the court of King Conchobar mac Nessa of Ulster, Cathbad, is seen in many stories, and these mostly describe his ability to foretell the future.

If you read the tale of Deirdre of the Sorrows – the foremost tragic heroine of the Ulster Cycle – you will get to know that before the court of Conchobar, the druid predicted that Deirdre would grow up to be very beautiful. Moreover, you will get to know that the druid predicted that not only kings but also lords would go to war over her. They added only because of her much blood will be shed. Along with this, Druid said that the three greatest warriors of Ulster would be exiled due to her. The king ignored the prophecy, and it came true.

Amergin Glúingel was the greatest of the mythological druids. He was a bard and judge for the Milesians in the Mythological Cycle. The main intention of the Milesians was to overrun the Tuatha Dé Danann and win the area of Ireland. But once they came there, a magical storm was made by the druids of the Tuatha Dé Danann to prevent their ships from making landfall. 

In this way, Amergin called upon the spirit of Ireland itself. It chanted a strong incantation which will be called The Song of Amergin. After the landfall, they aided & divided the land between his royal brothers in the conquest of Ireland to get the title Chief Ollam of Ireland. The names of other mythological druids are Tadg mac Nuadat of the Fenian Cycle and Mug Ruith.

About Female Druids:

Irish Druids Mythology—

In Irish mythology, you will find the mention of several female druids who share prominent cultural and religious roles with male druids. The Irish give several names to the female druids like bandruí ("woman-druid"), which we discovered in the Táin Bó Cúailnge story. Bodhmall that we found in Fenian Cycle is one of Fionn mac Cumhaill's childhood caretakers. Besides, Tlachtga is the daughter of the druid Mug Ruith. As per the Irish tradition, Ruith is related to the Hill of Ward, the site of prominent festivals held during the middle ages in Tlachtga's honor.

Biróg has played a major role in an Irish folktale where an attempt is made by the Fomorian warrior Balor to thwart a prophecy foretelling that his grandson will kill him by imprisoning his only daughter Eithne in the tower of Tory Island to keep her away from the contact of any man. Hence, you should know that Biróg is another bandruí of the Tuatha Dé Danann.

Bé Chuille is the daughter of the woodland goddess Flidais, and she was also known as a sorceress instead of a bandruí. Her presence was seen in a tale from the Metrical Dindshenchas. In that tale, she joins three other Tuatha Dé so that they can defeat the Greek witch Carman. 

Whereas another bandrúi Relbeo, a Nemedian druid appears in The Book of Invasions. And we got to know that she is the daughter of the King of Greece and mother of Fergus Lethderg and Alma One-Tooth. Dornoll, a bandrúi in Scotland, trained heroes in warfare (Laegaire and Conall). In this regard, you should know that she was Domnall Mildemail's daughter.

The Gallizenae:

Classical authors said that the Gallizenae were virgin priestesses of the Île de Sein off Pointe du Raz, Finistère, western Brittany. Artemidorus Ephesius, who is a Greek geographer, mentioned their existence first. Later, the Greek historian Strabo wrote that men were not allowed to enter the island, but the women came to the mainland so that they could meet their husbands. Who Were The Druids?

Their presence is seen in many mystical tales of Prehistoric Britain. A Druid named Figol was threatened to bring fire to rage on his enemies and to prevent the men and their horses from going to the toilet. As a result, their bodies got filled with urine. However, as per our knowledge of the modern world, we know that it is not possible. However, several druids are riddled with mysticism, and magic. They remain basically concerned with the natural world and its powers. They considered oak trees sacred.

We still don't know the source of the term ‘Druid’ but most people think that ‘doire’ is its origin. This one is an Irish-Gaelic word for oak tree which represents ‘wisdom’. However, there are different mysteries regarding the history of Druids. We can compare their practices with those of priests today because they are capable of connecting people with gods. However, the roles of them varied and acted as teachers, scientists, judges and philosophers. 

What makes them special is their power. They were capable of banishing people from society if someone broke the sacred laws, came between two opposing armies and prevented warfare. In addition, they didn't need to pay any taxes in battle. People during that time considered Druid women equal to men in different respects. In this regard, you should know that it is quite uncommon for an old community. Women were able to participate in wars and divorce their husbands.

Julius Caesar was the writer of one of the oldest accounts of Druids in 59-51 BC. These were written in Gaul, where we can see the division of prestigious men into Druids or nobles. From the Roman writers, the historians have gained most of the knowledge regarding Druids. 

In this regard, you must know that they were polytheistic. Besides, they had sacred figures and female gods, rather like the Romans & Greeks. But remember that the less civilised society of druids gave a sense of superiority to others. It can render a few of their accounts uncertain historically because they could be tainted with exaggerated instances of Druidic practices. Although there was a record of the Druidic human sacrifice, we don't have any specific proof to support this.

Subsections were available within the Druid class where all are color-coded robes. Arch-druid is the oldest druid who would wear gold robes. Generally, the ordinary ones used to wear white and work as priests. While the sacrificers wore red, the blue bards were artistic. The new recruits did lesser tasks to druidism. These were held in lesser esteem, where they wore brown or black.

Remember that all aspects were structured & ordered from the Druid class's hierarchy to their life pattern which followed nature’s cycles. Druids also noticed lunar, solar & seasonal cycles and based on that, they worshipped right major holy days. 

They used to celebrate New Year on Samhain which we call Halloween (31st October). This day is full of mysticism and spirituality when the last harvest would occur. The reason is that the living and deceased could reveal to each other. Yule is referred to the winter solstice when these ancient people would sit on mounds of earth like the NewGrange in Ireland waiting for sunrise at the night when they will be reborn.

Hence, you should know that Ostara indicated the spring equinox whereas Beltane as a fertility festival occurred on 30th April. The summer solstice was Litha. They believed that the ‘holy king’ took over from the ‘oak king’ of Yule at this time. The first harvest was Lughnasa on 2nd August while the autumnal equinox was Mabon. After that, the cycle of holy days used to repeat itself along with reflecting the nature cycles, planets, etc., because of the belief of Druids in reincarnation. According to them, sins committed in an earlier life might be possible to make up for in the next.

The worship place was known as the ‘Temples of the Druids.’ These were secluded areas such as clearings in woods, forests, and stone circles. Stonehenge in Britain is the most renowned stone circle which is an old megalithic monument of about 2500 BC. 

People mostly think about druids that they might congregate around Stonehenge and cast magical incantations. This spot is still a worship place today for pagans and other neo-druids. However, a disagreement is there about if the ancient Druids built Stonehenge. Although we don't know when Druids came to Britain, they are expected to arrive after Stonehenge was built.

What Do You Mean by Druidry?

It is a community-based belief and value system which depends on the animistic worldview. According to druidry, all nature is intelligent, while other living creatures are human's ancestors. Animistic beliefs can be found in all the world's religions. According to several anthropologists, it is the world religion occurring naturally as well as the spiritual root of most religious belief systems.

You should know that the Animistic cultures depend on oral storytelling and traditional knowledge in the local landscape. It lets them pass down knowledge and culture for many years, continuously mystifying Western academics.

Once the writing was invented, knowledge became more abstract after people wrote it down in books. People got several books and scriptures from folklore and traditional tales of animistic cultures. Ancient scribes wrote them down under the direction of powerful kings & Emperors, along with their patriarchal priesthoods.

Digital displays and computers meditate on the human experience increasingly for people who look at the display ten hours daily on average. It can be tried to develop a connection with the "felt presence," and it is a powerful way of unplugging, resetting & reconnecting with the nature force.

Modern Druidry and the Environment:

Nowadays, Druids remain engaged in raising awareness regarding not only pollution, fracking, unchecked mining, but also in harmful industrial farming and rewilding forests. Moreover, they keep themselves engaged in establishing more nature reserves for protecting the biodiversity of the land.

The critical foundation of Druidry is the natural balance maintenance and respect for natural law. In this regard, it is necessary to know that the old Druids were priests, magicians, doctors, lawmakers, as well as nature-based philosophers.

Conclusion:

Time was cylindrical for druids, indicating what goes around literally comes around. Moreover, they believed that if anyone performs such actions that go against natural law, it will lead to grave and long-term consequences for future generations. It is the reason the major focus of druids is on leaving a better world for future generations instead of consuming all natural resources quickly & harvesting the world to increase profit.

Frequently Asked Questions:

Q. What do the Druids believe?

Druids believed that oak trees are sacred and they remain concerned with the natural world. We can describe Druidism as a shamanic religion because it depended on the combination of holistic medicines & the spirit world to treat illnesses.

Q. What country are Druids from?

The Druids' oldest detailed and earliest accounts dated back to the first century B.C. They had set up a special role within the old communities of Britain, Ireland, and France.

Q. Do Druids still exist?

They don't proselytize though we can see the existence of modern Druidry across the globe. According to the reports, 74% of world Druids work actively to keep the spiritual practice private.

Hua Tuo

Hua Tuo was a Chinese physician of the late Eastern Han Dynasty. His courtesy name was Yuanhua. As per the historical texts Records of the Three Kingdoms and Book of the Later Han record, Hua Tuo became the first Chinese who used anaesthesia during surgery. This physician used a general anaesthetic that mixes wine, and a herbal concoction called mafeisan (literally "cannabis boil powder"). While he was popular for Hua Tuo acupuncture abilities, he was also an expert in surgery and anaesthesia. Besides, he was popular in acupuncture, moxibustion, herbal medicine, and medical Daoyin exercises. This famous physician developed the Wuqinxi after analyzing the movements of tiger, deer, bear, ape & crane. 

 Hua Tuo

Hua Tuo is especially famous for surgical operations and mafeisan uses. In this regard, you should know that mafesian is an herbal anesthetic formulation created from hemp.

Previously, Chinese doctors thought that surgery was the last task. They gave little time and didn't give much importance to describing surgical techniques. A low classed medical worker carried out the surgery. But around the beginning of the 3rd century, it was changed as Hua Tuo was there to change the surgery field in China. When he was young, he traveled and read widely. He was the first Chinese who take an interest in medicine. Besides, he tried to assist many soldiers who had been wounded in multiple wars at that time. 

 Hua Tuo Life History:

This young surgeon was very simple. He used some prescriptions only and some points for acupuncture. He prepared hemp and wine so that patients didn't need to feel the pain. It is believed that Hua Tuo is the discoverer of anesthetics. However, there is a possibility that Chinese physician Bian Qiao of the 5th century BCE might have used these.

You should know that Hua Tuo, the honored physician is involved in many surgical methods—

• laparotomy (incision into the abdominal cavity), 
• removal of diseased tissues, and 
• a partial splenectomy (removal of the spleen).

He resected the viscera and washed the inside to treat gastrointestinal diseases. Besides, he performed end-to-end anastomosis (connections) of the intestines, but we still don't know which material he used for the sutures.

There is a story of Hua Tuo. In this story, we learn that Guan Di called Kuan Ti was once a General and one of the great military heroes during that period. Kuan Ti later became the god of war also. However, he came to Hua Tuo as one of his hands was wounded by an arrow. As a result, it had infected his hand badly. Then Hua Tuo made a normal anaesthetic drink to offer his patient. When General Guandi saw this, he laughed and called for a board & stones to play a game.

Once the surgeon scraped the flesh and bone free of infection to repair the wound, Guandi and his teammates stopped laughing and continued playing the game. Surgery was one of his pursuits despite being his main interest. He was an expert in hydrotherapy. That's why he did some great unique work in physiotherapy. He invented a series of exercises called the frolics of the five animals where the patient copied the movements of the tiger, deer, bear, ape, and bird. This series was very popular and widely adopted.

Historical accounts:

His biographies are officially found in Chinese history during the Eastern Han dynasty (25-220) and Three Kingdoms (220-280). The text records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) and the fifth-century historical text Book of the Later Han (Houhanshu) said that this surgeon was from Qiao County, Pei Commandery. It is currently in Bozhou, Anhui. This famous surgeon got employment offers from high-ranking officials like Chen Gui but refused them and wanted to practise medicine. You should know that there is no certainty regarding the dates of his life. However, as per the estimations from 110 to 207 and from 190 to 265, we can say that the most appropriate time is 145-208. He was an older contemporary of the physician Zhang Zhongjing (150-219).

While Hua means "magnificent, China," whereas Tuo indicates "hunchback" or 陀, literally "steep hill ."People also called him Hua Fu, meaning "apply [powder/ointment/etc." Yuanhua was his courtesy name that indicates "primal transformation". According to a few scholars, he learned the medical techniques of Ayurveda from early Buddhist missionaries in China. Victor H. Mair said that he was several years ahead of his time in medical knowledge and practice. His name was also pronounced ghwa-thā in Old Chinese. It came from the term agada, "medicine; toxicology". Hence, the Sanskrit word agada is the source of it. As per the stories related to his biography, he was active mainly where the first Buddhist communities were set up.

According to the biography in the Sanguozhi, he resembled a Daoist xian (仙; "immortal"). We have got the details of his medical techniques from the biography. This famous surgeon was a master in nourishing one's nature. While his contemporaries thought he might be a hundred years old, he still looked hale and hardy. His great skills are illustrated through the medicines he prescribed. Besides, to cure the illnesses of patients, he prepared decoctions which needed only some ingredients.

He was excellent in different fields, such as he could easily divide up and compound based on the right proportions. This famous surgeon did not even need to weigh the different components of his medicines. After boiling the decoction, one can drink it. Hence, he used to tell patients how they should take medicine and then would go away. After taking the medicines, the condition of the patient would improve promptly.

Suppose Hua Tuo employed moxibustion, he need ro burn punk in one or two places. In every place, he used to make seven or eight separate cauterisations. Due to which the disease used to respond quickly during the elimination time. Suppose Hua Tui employed acupuncture. Hence, it will be in one or two places only. He gave instructions to the patients when using the needle and said that he would guide the point to a location. Once it reaches the spot, the patient feels that they need to tell him. Once the patient told him that the point had reached the designated spot, he started to remove the needle, and as a result, the sickness would be alleviated virtually.

Sometimes, illnesses were concentrated internally where medicines and needles couldn't play any role. Hence, he realized that it was essential to operate. Then, he asked his patients to drink a solution of morphean powder. As soon as they drink this, they would be intoxicated as though dead and completely insensate.

After making an incision, he removed the diseased tissues. Sometimes the diseases can be in the intestines. He was capable of serving them & washing them out. Then, he stitched the abdomen together and rubbed on an ointment. Once the period of 4-5 days is passed, patients will no longer face pain. They would become conscious and normal within a month.

According to the explanation of his biography in the Houhanshu, the mafeisan decoction was dissolved in jiu. In this case, you should know that mafeisan is a numbing boiling powder. However, there is no more prescription for mafeisan anaesthetic liquor and his writings because all were destroyed or lost. We can find the mention of five medical books attributed to him & his disciples in the Book of Sui.

Fictional accounts:

He heals general Guan Yu, as per the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. A poisonous arrow hit the General's arm during the Battle of Fancheng in 219. When he gave anaesthetis to Guan Yu, this General said that he didn't feel afraid of pain. The surgeon cut the affected flesh using a knife to scrape the poison from the bone. While Tup continued the treatment, Guan Yu continued playing a game of weiqi with Ma Liang, even though he didn't flinch from pain.

Later when Ma Liang asked him about the incident, Guan Yu says that he feigned being unhurt to keep the morale of his troops high. Once the surgeon completed the operation successfully, he gave a sumptuous banquet as a reward and a gift of 100 ounces of gold. But the surgeon refused to take the reward and told him that his responsibility is to heal patients and not to make a profit. Although the famous surgeon died in 208, his surgery story became famous a decade before Guan Yu fought at the Battle of Fancheng.

According to the historical document Sanguozhi, bone surgery was performed on Guan Yu, who showed no painful expression. Sanguozhi didn't tell the surgeon's name and the operation name. Cao Cao summons the surgeon later to treat chronic excruciating pain in his head, which was actually a brain tumour. As per the statement of

Cao Cao, Hua Tuo told him that it is essential to open up the brain cut the open head to remove the tumour. Then, it would be possible to get the tumour out and sew it back. In this procedure, Cao Cao will be anesthesized. But there happened a misconfusion. He thought that Hua Tuo planned to murder him. That is why he was arrested and imprisoned later. But there is a strong reason behind this. Previously, Ji Ping, an imperial physician, tried to attack him & forced him to consume poisoned medicine.

Hua Tuo gave his Qing Nang Shu to one prison guard to keep his medical legacy alive in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Later, he died in prison. Although the guard's wife burnt the book as she was afraid of being implicated. But somehow, the guard somehow managed to save a few pages but, the other pages were lost forever.

Mafeisan:

The use of innovative anaesthetic mafeisan on Hua Tuo's patients during surgery is still a long-standing mystery. He got credit from Records of the Three Kingdoms and the Book of the Later Han because he made this anesthetic during the Eastern Han Dynasty. Although there was no written record or finding of real ingredients, Chinese medical practitioners made estimations in later periods. You can find a controversy over the presence of mafeisan historically in Chinese literature.

Ma means "cannabis; hemp; numbed," whereas fei indicates "boiling; bubbling," and San refers to "break up; scatter; medicine in powder form." The combination of these terms indicates mafeisan. You should know that ma can indicate "numbed; tingling" (e.g., mazui "anesthetic; narcotic"). It came from the properties of the fruits and leaves used for medicinal purposes.

After the reconstruction of Modern Standard Chinese mafei, it is called Old Chinese *mrâipəts, Late Han Chinese maipus (during Hua Tuo's life), and Middle Chinese mapjwəi.

Several sinologists and scholars of traditional Chinese medicine have different assumptions at mafei powder's anaesthetic components. As per the assumptions of Frederick P. Smith, the great surgeon Hua Tuo, "the Machaon of Chinese historical romance", have used yabulu ("Mandragora officinarum") Instead of huoma ("cannabis") and mantuolo ("Datura stramonium," nota bene, which was given the name "Tuo" By Hua) mixed in wine, and after that could be drunk like a stupefying medicine.

Mafeisan was translated by Herbert Giles (1897:323) as "hashish." After that, Lionel Giles, son of Herbert Giles, recognizes "hemp-bubble-powder" as "something akin to hashish or bhang". It was noted by Victor H. Mair that mafei becomes a transcription of a few Indo-European words related to "morphine."

Morphine was first isolated in 1804 from opium by Friedrich Sertürner. Mair suggests that it is conceivable that any name like morphin was in use before as a designation for the anaesthetic properties.

Wang Zhenguo and Chen Ping noticed similarities among "scientists of later generations," in which mafei contained yangjinhua, wutou, or caowu. The first one means "Datura stramonium," whereas the second one indicates "rhizome of Aconitum, Chinese monkshood," and the last term caowu means "Aconitum kusnezofflin; Kusnezoff monkshood."

According to the suggestions from Lu Gwei-Djen and Joseph Needham, this famous surgeon from China might have found surgical analgesia through acupuncture.

Wang Shuhe and the pulse: In Chinese history, medicine got more importance than surgery. That's why the diagnosis was of considerable significance. The early Chinese physician tested patients' skin color at different sections and noted several other external signs. But he started the pulse diagnosis. Studying pulse was a major occupation of the physician who heard countless sounds and rhythms of different kinds. Maijing was a classic work written by Wang Shuhe. Wang wrote a crucial commentary on Huangdi neijing also. But remember that his labors over the pulse made him the best Chinese physician. The assertion "Nothing surpasses the examination of the pulse" can be discovered in the Huangdi neijing.

The physician had three areas on every wrist where it was necessary to ascertain the quality and quantity of the pulse. Cun ("inch") is the nearest area to the hand, whereas guan ("bar") is the middle position. The chi ("cubit") was the farthest from the hand. Remember that yang represents left, whereas Yin represents right. The right pulse of a woman meant disorder, whereas her left pulse order. For men, it is vice versa.

While the physician reads three different pulses on every wrist, he reads every pulse at two levels. For instance, if the inch was lightly pressed on your left wrist, the pulse meant the state of the small intestines. When the inch was heavily pressed, it indicated the heart. When the bar is pressed lightly, it means the state of the gallbladder. It indicated the liver state when pressed heavily. If the cubit was lightly pressed, it meant the state of the urinary bladder. On the other hand, it meant the state of the kidneys when pressed heavily. The right wrist came with specific connections to the body organs.

The pulses were categorized into 7 biao ("superficial") and 8 li ("sunken") pulses. But do you know what these refer to? For instance, the seven pulses on inch position might mean, among other things:

• pains and heat in the middle region of the body and the head; 
• accumulation of blood in the chest; 
• belching and vomiting; 
• insufferable heat within the thorax; 
• severe thoracic pains; 
• headaches; and 
• heat in the chest.

These relationships seem complex to western minds. However, this Chinese physician achieved some remarkable diagnoses in pulse lore.

Final period:

There were significant contributions of several people behind the fame of Chinese medicine, like three emperors, physicians including Bian Qiao, Zhang Zhongjing, Hua Tuo, & Wang Shuhe, and others who contributed individually. We got a clear and elaborated description of smallpox from Ge Hong (3rd century CE). Ge Hong achieved his achievement about 600 years before al-Rāzī (Rhazes), a physician of Persia. He got credit because he first described the deadly disease.

Approximately 700 years after Ge Hong, the inoculation practice against smallpox started debuting. A spiritual old woman or a physician brought inoculation. They used to live on a mountain and started this practice using scrabs. Hence, scabs must be dried, ground into powder, and inserted into the nostrils.

From the 3rd century to the middle of the 16th century CE, was the time of Wang Shuhe. During this time, Chinese medical men started investing more effort in the compilation of encyclopaedias and the commentaries writing on the classical works. Official rites to worship old Physicians were set up in 1644 at the Qing Hui Palace near the College of Imperial Physicians in Peking (Beijing). In spring, the rites were celebrated.

Medical communication started between East & West in the sixteenth century when Portuguese Bishop Belchior Carneiro set up Saint Raphael's Hospital near Guangzhou (Canton). As soon as some western medicine cured several diseases, a few Chinese people started believing that everything is good and scientific in Western medicine, even better than traditional medicine. The belief and trust of western medicine started growing more despite the appearance of the country's ruler, Sun Yat-sen. Although, it was the early 20th century when the TCM interest renewed. Whereas during the end of 20th century and the starting of 21st century, TCM practices started all over the world.

The End Life:

The end life of this famous Chinese surgeon is hidden in a mist of conflicting and doubtful stories. As per a few stories, he was the court physician of Cao Cao who was the king of Wei. Hua Tuo relieved the ruler temporarily through acupuncture. Once the ruler told Hua Tuo to remove the annoyance permanently, he said that cutting into the royal skull was necessary. Although the wife of Cao Cao supported surgery, the king suspected Hua Tuo as one of his enemies or someone whom his enemies had sent to kill. Then, the ruler decided to throw the surgeon into jail. The Book of the Blue Bag, named Qingnang shu, one of the major books of Hua Tuo, was burnt for removing all traces of his work. In the history of China, he earned the place of the greatest surgeon.

Frequently Asked Questions:

• Q. When was Hua Tuo born?

He was born in 145 AD.

• Q. Which person is a famous doctor in the field of traditional Chinese medicine?

HUANG Yu-jie is Taiwan's most renowned traditional Chinese medical physician during the late Qing dynasty and early republican period of China.

• Q. How did Hua Tuo die?

Hua Tuo wanted to avoid treating Cao Cao. So, he repeatedly made excuses by telling him that his wife is sick. However, after discovering the deception, Cao Cao ordered the execution of Hua Tuo.

Oak Island Mystery

The Oak Island mystery is a story series that moves around buried treasure & some unexplained things which are discovered on or near Oak Island in Nova Scotia. Since the 18th century, people have been continuously trying to look for treasures and artifacts. There are different theories on this Island, like pirate treasure, Shakespearean manuscripts, the Holy Grail, or the Ark of the Covenant, with the Grail and the Ark buried by the Knights Templar.

While multiple items have surfaced over the years, a few of these are carbon-dated. It is believed that these are hundreds of years old. We can consider these treasures, but you should know that searchers didn't find any major treasure here. If you come here, you can find several digs by numerous individuals and groups. Early explorers dug the real shaft called "the money pit." According to a few people, there is a "curse" on the treasure, dated over one hundred years. A state says that seven men will pass away searching for the treasure before it was found.

What is Oak Island?

This one is a private island owned in Lunenburg County, located on the south shore of Nova Scotia, Canada. It is one of the islands in Mahone Bay and is covered with trees. You should know that by a causeway, this island is connected to the mainland. The rural community of Western Shore is the nearest one, whereas Chester is the nearest village. Different theories on the island about buried treasure or historical artifacts made this island famous.

Water in the Money Pit:

It was the year 1862 when an account was written stating that the pit flooded with seawater up to 10m level or 33 feet after excavation of the Onslow Company about 80–90 feet (24–27 metres). There have been several attempts by people to remove the water, but all were unsuccessful. Explorers said about a drainage system that extends from the ocean beaches to the pit.

According to the treasure hunters, it was the year 1851 when they found coconut fibres under the surface of a beach, Smith's Cove. It can be said from this theory that the beach turned into a syphon by feeding seawater into the pit through an artificial tunnel. Its sample material was reportedly sent to the Smithsonian Institution during the early 20th century. They said that it was coconut fibre.

However, as per an expedition, they discovered a flood tunnel lined with flat stones at 27m or 90 feet. According to the geologist Robert Dunfield, he closely tested the walls of the re-excavated pit but couldn't find any proof of a tunnel.

In 1995, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution conducted a fourteen day survey as Boston-area businessman David Mugar invited them. This institution performed a few dye tests in the borehole. After that, it said that a natural interaction between the island's freshwater lens and tidal pressures caused flooding (refuting the artificial tunnel theory).

The Woods Hole scientists after watching the 1971 videos reported that there is not anything conclusive that can be determined from murky pictures. It is believed that the five-finger (or box) drains at Smith's Cove are the remains of the old salt works. But there is no link between the drains and pit flooding.

Remember that this island is located on a glacial tumulus system. As many water-filled anhydrite cavities underlain this, it is believed that the continuous flooding of the pit occurs due to these. Limestone dissolves easily after being exposed to water. As a result, it forms caves and natural voids. The depth of Bedrock is 38 to 45 metres (125 to 148 feet) in the pit area.

About Oak Island Mystery:

Since the late 1700s, it has been a great place for treasure hunters. A rumour said that Captain Kidd's treasure was buried there. Some proofs were there to support what went on during the early excavations. Stories started to be documented in 1856 and since then, several theories extend beyond that of Captain Kidd. For instance, there were other religious artifacts, manuscripts, and Marie Antoinette's jewels.

The "Money Pit" was a place of interest on this Island for treasure hunters. This one is the original searchers’ spot located on the island's east side. It was more than 100 feet deep. As per island lore, in 1795, it caught the attention of a local teenager who saw an indentation in the ground. Then, the teenager started digging with some friends to find an artificial shaft containing wooden platforms every 10' down to the 90' level of depth."Nolan's Cross" was the formation of boulders, named after a treasure hunter.

Top Discoveries Related To Oak Island Mystery:

Jewelled Brooch:

Laginas found it on the western side of Oak Island. The location is near to the place where Daniel McGuiness used to stay.

Granite Stone:

It was discovered 90 feet down from the money pit. Here, you will get to see some carved peculiar symbols that are still not identified by anyone though a person has given the translation, 'Forty feet below, two million pounds are buried.'

Coconut Fibres:

Searchers discovered a huge amount of coconut fibres at 60 feet depth during the early excavations of The Money Pit. But the distance of the nearest coconut trees was 1500 miles. According to some people, people might have used these earlier to make a rope.

Swages:

Two iron objects were discovered by Laginas on the island's west side. After some time, these got specified as swages. It is a kind of blacksmith tool that is expected to be from the 14th century. As per the team, the equipment is proof of mining operations on this island.

Bone Fragments:

Two fragments at borehole H8 in The Money Pit area were recovered by the team. However, initially they identified the fragments as human. Later, as per the testing, it was proved that one belongs to the European ancestry and the other one was of Middle Eastern.

Chain:

Searchers discovered a piece of chain with some bone at a neighbouring borehole. However, the team thinks that it is connected to a theory. And the theory is when the treasure was buried, the slaves who were digging the shaft were chained first and buried alive thereafter. The team thinks that their spirits are guarding the vault and cursing the explorers.

Ancient Manuscripts:

In the late 1800s, the Oak Island Treasure Company excavated and also hit the cement-like level153 ft underground. Besides, they discovered a small parchment via drilling. According to a theory, the origin of the parchment can be a collection of Shakespeare's lost manuscripts which were hidden on this island by Francis Bacon, the friend of Bard, 16th-century scientist, and 'the true author' of Shakespeare's plays.

Leather Book Binding:

Laginas found small parchment pieces covered with leather in the H-8 spoils near the pit. But the doubt is whether these are Shakespeare's lost manuscripts' further pieces or not.

Roman Sword:

According to a report in 2015, a fisherman pulled out a Roman sword from the waters of this Island. Although the discovery has rewritten history, which put Romans in North America. The sword wasn't 2,000 years old. Rather, it was a modern replica of a Roman sword.

Roman Numerals:

Due to the damming and draining at Smith's Cove, a U-shaped wooden formation was discovered. A closer inspection of Oak Island mystery revealed the Roman numerals. As per the tree ring testing, it was discovered that the structure was 1769 – 25 years old before The Money Pit discovery. The team speculates that it may be a part of a real treasure shaft.

Nolan's Cross:

Fred Nolan is a treasure hunter who found five large boulders in 1981. His discoveries formed a huge symmetrical cross. In addition, there was another boulder which was discovered at the centre of the cross containing a picture of a human face and a sword. People know it as Nolan's Cross. These boulders prove that an Atlantic fleet of Templars went to this spot and might have buried some treasure.

Templar Coin:

Laginas discovered a coin adjacent to the money pit, embedded with a Templar cross. These Templars amassed massive wealth during the Mediaeval period and stored the wealth in fortresses across Europe. It was the evidence for the team that a few of that wealth was buried in this place.

Templar Cross:

People found a lead cross adjacent to Smith's Cove. The team moved to Domme Prison in France, where Templar knights were imprisoned. Religious carvings scattered the wall. There were markings such as Virgin Mary, Jesus, and a cross about the same as the piece that was discovered on the island.

Crossbow Bolt:

It is one of the famous Templar discoveries found in lot 26 on the southwest shore. The team tested it very closely and recognized it as mediaeval, dating back to the 13th century with Templar origin.

Spanish Coin:

The team discovered a copper coin in the island swamp. When specialists saw this, they said that it could be made in the 17th century. According to a story, Spanish explorers hid a treasure trove rather than providing it to the King. Now the question is was it that treasure? Or it was dropped by a person who was looking for the gold.

Spanish Silver Ring:

This ring was discovered at the swamp. Then it was under a professional Gemologist. After that, it was set up that two repairs would be done- whereas one repair was to create the ring bigger, and the other repair was to make it smaller. However, it has a chiselled floral design that indicates 1730s European origin (Spanish).

Ship Brace:

According to another theory, a swamp may hide a sunken ship. There was a treasure ship sailing with goods offloaded. But after that, the ship got grounded. Later, the ship was destroyed in terms of removing the evidence. Once the team found a ship brace at the swamp, they created this link assuming that it had undergone the massive stress of being burnt in fire. After completing a conversation with a blacksmith, the team got to know about this kind of event that might have happened in the 18th century.

Ship Spikes:

Many ship spikes are discovered across the island, including the Swamp, the Money Pit, and so on.

Encampment of Samuel Ball:

When the team was looking for artifacts on lot 24, they found coins, buttons, and a pistol part. Once, Samuel Ball was the owner of the area. He was born in 1764 into slavery in the Southern side of Carolina. Later, he fought for the British in the American Revolution and got freedom. Then, the war was moved to Nova Scotia. It was 1786 when he bought a 4-acre lot on this Island. One theory doubts whether Samuel Ball found the treasure and kept this a secret or not.

Tunnel: 

 It looks like an artificial stone tunnel found near Samuel Ball's home. As per the assumptions, this one can be a way to a potential vault of Ball's wealth.

Keyhole:

During the metal detection, the team discovered a keyhole which features an ornate floral style that may be part of a chest. There is a rumour that one of three missing treasure chests of Captain James Anderson is buried on the island.

Ancient Pottery:

The team dug a trench of two feet on lot 12 in a place on Fred Nolan's maps. People knew it as an old dump site. They discovered pieces of pottery in this place. It is assumed that the depositors left this behind.

Hidden Hatch:

The island's map is 14th century old which was shown to the two brothers, and it indicates a hatch on the west side. When the team went to that place, they found a square-shaped hatch. It can be a back entrance to the Money Pit.

Silver Button:

It was found at Isaac point. It was assumed that the button belonged to a farmer before the discovery of The Money Pit.

The Bottom Line:

There are more than 50 Oak Island mystery books that have been published. These books contain the island's history and describe different theories. A few fiction works can also be found which are based on the Money Pit, such as The Money Pit Mystery, Riptide, The Hand of Robin Squires, and Betrayed: The Legend of Oak Island. The History Channel started airing a reality TV show, 'The Curse of Oak Island,' in January 2014. This channel lets us know about a group of modern treasure hunters, including brothers Rick and Marty Lagina of the "Michigan Group." In this series, they covered a few discoveries like centuries-old coins, an antique brooch, and a lead cross.

Frequently Asked Questions:

Q. Did they ever find the mystery of Oak Island?

Many items have surfaced over these years and have been discovered on this island. A few of these have been carbon-dated and old for hundreds of years. Although we consider these as treasures, it is important to know that any significant treasure site has not been discovered yet.

Q. Did they find the treasure on Oak Island 2022?

As per the belief, the island hides one of the greatest treasures of all time. But no one can discover this till now.

Q. What is the biggest treasure found on Oak Island?

People consider the cross one of the biggest discoveries in "The Curse of Oak Island."

Madrid Codex

Madrid Codex is called the Tro-Cortesianus Codex or the Troano Codex. This is one of three surviving Maya books of the pre-Columbian period, circa 900–1521 AD, around the Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology. In 1965, Grolier Codex, a fourth codex, was founded. It is held in Madrid by the Museo de América. Besides, it believes that the codex is vital in its collection. Although you should know that the original version is not displayed as it is in fragile condition, an exact reproduction is in display instead.

Once, the Maya Madrid codex was categorized into two pieces- "Codex Troano" and "Codex Cortesianus." Then, an ethnologist named Leon de Rosny realized in the 1880s that both pieces belonged together. He helped to combine these pieces into one text which was later brought to Madrid. Later, it was named "Madrid Codex".

Physical Characteristics of Madrid Codex:

People used amate paper in a long strip to create codex. The paper was folded up accordion-style and then coated using a stucco of a thin layer. Usually, people use it as a painting surface. There is an entire document, the whole Madrid codex, containing 56 sheets, and these are painted on both sides to make a total of 112 pages. Hence, the Troano is the bigger portion which has seventy pages including 22–56 and 78–112. The name came from Juan Tro y Ortolano.

The Cortesianus Codex contains the remaining 42 pages, which are pages 1–21 and 57–77. Every page has a measurement of roughly 23.2 × 12.2 centimetres (9.1 by 4.8 in).

Madrid Codex Content:

It is a very long surviving Maya codice the content of which is made up of almanacs and horoscopes. These are useful for Maya priests in ceremonies and divinatory rituals. It has astronomical tables, but the number is lesser than the three surviving Maya codices. A few contents are expected to be copied from older Maya books.

Coe and Kerr suggested that there was only one scribe behind the work as the codex is stylistically uniform. But after a close analysis of glyphic elements, it was believed that many scribes were involved in its production. It was assumed that about eight or nine scribes were involved in the creation and made consecutive sections of the manuscript.

Basically, the Scribes were the priesthood members and made the religious content of the codex. It is assumed that all priests got the book one by one, and whenever they got this, they added a section to their hands.

In this case, the pictures depict rituals like human sacrifice and invoking rainfall, regular tasks- beekeeping, hunting, warfare, and weaving. Besides, the other pictures display that gods are taking Sikar smoke like modern cigars containing tobacco leaves.

Origin of Madrid Codex: 

Michael Coe and Justin Kerr were the two scholars who said that its origin was dated to after the Spanish conquest. However, the proof says that the document belongs to the pre-conquest date. It is expected that the codex was created in Yucatán. Whereas, Yucatecan is the language used here. This one is a group of Mayan languages, which contains Yucatec, Itza, Lacandon, and Mopan. In addition, these languages were distributed among the Yucatán Peninsula, like Chiapas, Belize, and the Guatemalan department of Petén.

According to J. Eric Thompson, its origin was in western Yucatán between 1250 and 1450 AD. Suggestions of some scholars also say that its origin may be the Petén region of Guatemala.

However, the opinions of all scholars are not the same. Other scholars said that it was similar to murals available at Chichen Itza, Mayapan, and other sites like Santa Rita, Tancah, & Tulum, which are on the east coast. There are two fragments of paper, and these are incorporated into its front and last pages, where we can find proof of Spanish writing. As a result, Thompson suggested that the document was acquired by a Spanish priest at Tayasal in Petén.

Discovery of Madrid Codex:

In 1860, it was founded and categorized into two various portions. These were of different sizes and available in different locations. Madrid codex gets Tro-Cortesianus Codex's another name after those parts were found. According to the scholar Léon de Rosny, these two parts belonged to the same book.

Troano Codex was the name of the bigger part. French scholar Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg published it in 1869–1870. In 1866, he discovered the part in possession of Juan de Tro y Ortolano in Madrid. This French scholar was the person who identified this first as a Maya book. Later, in 1888, the ownership of this part went to the Museo Arqueológico Nacional which is known as the "National Archaeological Museum".

Cortesianus Codex was the name of the smaller part that Juan de Palacios attempted to sell in 1867. Hence, you should know that he was a Madrid resident. Later, this part went to the Museo Arqueológico Nacional which acquired this in 1872 from José Ignacio Miró, who was a book collector by profession. He claimed that he recently bought this codex from Extremadura, a place from where Francisco de Montejo and several conquistadors came, like the work of Hernán Cortés, who won Mexico.

It is expected that anybody these conquistadors brought it to Spain. After that, this smaller part was named after Hernán Cortés, the director of the Museo Arqueológico Nacional. According to him, he was the person who brought it to Spain.

c. 1400 CE, when the Mayan period was about to end, people believed that it was the product of the late period. However, this one may be a post-Classic copy of the Classic Mayan scholarship. While its figures were sketched poorly, it was not similar to the other surviving codices in quality.

There you can find detailed information about astrology and divinatory practices in the book. While anthropologists can identify many Mayan gods, it is precious to historians. It was also precious to anthropologists who wanted to reconstruct the rites which ushered in the New Year. Additionally, there are available Mayan crafts like pottery & weaving and activities including hunting.

The pages of the Madrid codex were manufactured from the bark of a fig tree. In 1888, its two parts were brought together. As a result, the final document is now available in the Museum of America in Madrid.

Maya: 

Over five million people spoke thirty Mayan languages in the early 21st century. Among those people, most of them were bilingual in Spanish. Maya possessed a very big civilization belonging to the Western Hemisphere before the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Central America. Those people used to practise agriculture, make great stone buildings and pyramid temples, and worked gold and copper.

They had settled villages at the beginning of 1500 BCE. Then, these people made an agriculture cultivating corn (maize), beans, and squash. They also cultivated cassava (sweet manioc) by 600 CE. Later, they started building ceremonial centres, which turned into towns by 200 CE. Temples, pyramids, palaces, courts for playing ball, and plazas were developed there as improvements. They used to quarry limestone or building stones a lot and cut these stones with the help of chert & other harder stones.

While they used to practise slash-and-burn agriculture, they also used improved tricks of terracing & irrigation. Besides, a highly sophisticated astronomical system was developed. They produced paper using the inner bark of wild fig trees. After that, they used these papers as books to write their hieroglyphs. We know these books as codices. In addition, they made a tradition of sculpture and relief carving. We can know about them from primary resources like architectural works, stone inscriptions, and reliefs.

The period about 250 CE, at the time of the rise of Maya, is called the Classic Period of Mayan culture to archaeologists. This period lasted until about 900 CE. Their civilization was over 40 cities and each town contained between 5,000 and 50,000 people. Tikal, Uaxactún, Copán, Bonampak, Dos Pilas, Calakmul, Palenque, and Río Bec are names of some principal cities in this case. While there are about two million people in total, most people live in the lowlands— Guatemala.

Although, the classic Maya civilization had declined precipitously. Therefore, the principal cities and the ceremonial centres remained vacant. According to a few scholars, it happened due to the armed conflicts and the exhaustion of agricultural land. After that, they came up with another reason for the decline of civilization after discoveries in the twenty-first century. The river disruption related to battle and land trade paths is also the reason behind it.

Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, Mayapán, and some other towns were getting improvements and developments continuously during the Post-Classic Period (900–1519), and it continued for some centuries while lowland towns got depopulated. Maya who used to practise their forebear's religious rites, became village-dwelling agriculturists when Spaniards conquered locations in the sixteenth century.

Whereas Mayan cities and ceremonial centres were adorned with several pyramidal temples and palaces that were made of limestone blocks. But it is also true that scholars did not know the true nature of Mayan society, what hieroglyphics meant, and the chronicle of its history for centuries after the discovery of old building sites by Spaniards.

In the 1830s, the systematic explorations of these sites were undertaken first, and it was early and in the middle of the twentieth century when a tiny part of the writing system got deciphered. As a result, these highlighted the Mayan religion based on the Sun, the Moon, rain, and corn.

A pinnacle of intellectual achievement is represented by positional notation and the zero's usage. Their astronomy underlies a calendrical system which is hard to understand. It includes an accurately determined solar year, a sacred calendar of 260 days, and various longer cycles. In this case, you should know that the solar year consists of 18 months of 20 days each and five days extra. However, they believed it was unlucky. On the flip side, the sacred calendar includes 13 cycles of 20 named days. Astronomers could guess solar eclipses accurately.

In the middle of the twentieth century, scholars mistakenly thought, based on the discoveries, that their society had peaceful stargazers and calendar keepers. Several hieroglyphs depict the history of the rulers who fought against the weak towns and took their aristocrats captive. There was a tradition to torture the captives, mutilate them and later sacrifice them to the gods.

The Bottom Line:

You should know that torturing and sacrificing humans to gods were some of the basic religious rituals. People believed that it would guarantee fertility. In case they did not do such practices, cosmic disorder and chaos were believed to happen. People thought that drawing human blood could nourish the gods. Thus, they might get the chance to contact gods.

Frequently Asked Questions:

Q. What is the main difference between the Madrid Codex and the Dresden Codex?

The length of the Madrid Codex is approximately 22 feet, and this part has 56 leaves meaning there are a total of 112 pages. On the other hand, the Dresden Codex has 74 pages. The Paris codic contains 24 pages, whereas the Grolier codice have ten pages.

Q. Where is the Madrid Codex?

It is in the Museo de América.

Q. When was the Madrid Codex discovered?

The Madrid Codices I–II (I – Ms. 8937 i II – Ms. 8936) was found in 1965 by Leonardo da Vinci and Dr. Jules Piccus in the Biblioteca Nacional de España in Madrid.

Aegina Treasure

Aegina Treasure, also known as Aigina Treasure, is a vital Minoan gold hoard. It is said that people have found this on the Aegina island in Greece and kept it in the British Museum. Since 1892, it has been a part of the British Museum. This treasure is a vital group of Minoan jewellery.

Aegina Treasure, How Old is It?

The Minoan civilization was considered as Aegean Bronze Age civilization, on Crete, and other Aegean islands. It flourished from about 2600 to 1100 BC. In 1891, people found this in a tomb. But we are unfortunate that people are still unable to determine the exact circumstances near the discovery.

What is Inside the Aegina Treasure?

This treasure is full of gold jewellery from the Greek bronze age (between 1850 and 1550 BC). In this treasure, there can be found a pendant, three diadems, two pairs of earrings, a bracelet, a gold cup, four rings, plaques, and gold stripes.

Five interconnecting golden rings were there, also with beads and necklaces. These are made of several materials such as gold, lapis lazuli, amethyst, quartz, cornelian, and green jasper. Among these items, a pendant and a pair of earrings are the most elaborate ones.

The pair of the earrings has a double-headed snake design. There are two greyhounds inside, over two monkeys. Besides, there exist 14 short chains around the circle with golden discs and figures of owls.

It is believed that the pendant is representing a Cretan deity in a field of lotus flowers which is flanked by two geese in a field. You can find two unrecognized objects in the background. According to people, these might have links to "cult horns," the sacred horns of bulls, or composite bows.

Aegina: Aegina is one of the Saronic Greece Islands, and it is seventeen miles far from Athens. The treasure was found here. The island was a rival of Athens in the earlier period. Hence, you should know that Athens had the greatest sea power of this era.

When the Minoan period was running, trade between Crete and Aegean, and Mediterranean settlements was famous. Then, the influence of Minoan culture became dominant via artists and traders. However, you can find several theories, such as Mycenaean invasions from mainland Greece or the volcanic eruption of Thera.

Hoards:

It is an archaeological term used for many precious objects or artifacts which are buried in the ground, but people want to recover them later. Hoarders died sometimes, or they could not go back to retrieve the hoard. After several years, people might discover these surviving hoards. In earlier societies, caches or hoards refer to the relative degree of unrest.

Aegina Treasure Discovery:

While it was discovered in 1891, the British Museum bought the treasure after one year from the Cresswell Brothers, who were the dealers of a London firm of sponge. Later in 1914, the museum bought further pieces from the treasure.

Most scholars believe that at the Chryssolakkos necropolis at Malia, Crete, the hoard was gophered. But the locals did not notice the Malia Pendant correctly, and few other pieces. In 1930, it was discovered and is now kept in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum.

Conclusion:

In the British Museum, this treasure has always been a mystery as they have not found other jewellery like this which can give us any idea about its date or fabric. People initially knew this as the Late Mycenaean (i.e., L.H. III). Currently, people want to put this in the 7th century B.G. According to a scholar, it is Phoenician. Greek archaeologist Stais said it was a combination of Mycenaean and later elements.

After bringing the treasure to the Museum in 1892, Evans published it in 1893. According to him, all antiquities were not allowed to be exported from Greece because it was illegal. So, people might have excavated these for smuggling out of the nation.

Tara: Powerful Feminine Force in Buddhism

Tara, called Jetsun Dölma, is a significant figure in Buddhism. She is mainly revered in Tibetian Buddhism. In Mahayana Buddhism, she appeared as a female bodhisattva. If it comes to talk about Vajrayana Buddhism, she appeard as a female Buddha. We know her as the "mother of liberation," who is the symbol of virtues of success in the field of work & achievements. In addition, people know her as Duōluó Púsà in Chinese Buddhism. However, people in Japan know her as Tara Bosatsu .

Tara, who is Tibetian Sgrol-ma, a Buddhist saviour goddess, is very famous in Nepal, Tibet, and Mongolia. People consider her as bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara's feminine counterpart. People believed that there is a story behind her existence. The story is one day, a tear of Avalokiteshvara has fallen to the ground and has formed a lake. In its water, an opening lotus rose up which revealed the Goddess. She is considered as a compassionate deity who helps the people who are in distress.

Origin as a Buddhist Bodhisattva:

You can find multiple stories that give different explanations of her origin as a bodhisattva. This story tells about a young princess spending her life in another world system. She is Jnanachandra or Yeshe Dawa, meaning of which is the "Moon of Primordial Awareness." She was offering that world system to the Buddha for an era. The system was known as Tonyo Drupa. He gave her instructions related to bodhicitta which is Bodhisattva's compassionate mental state. Later a few monks came to her to give suggestions. They said that she should pray so that she could be reborn as male in her next life to get progress. Then, she told the monks that "weak minded worldlings' ' think that gender is a barrier and women can't progress in life.

However, later, she noticed that only a few were there who wanted her to work for the well-being and prosperity of sentient beings in the form of a female. That's why she decided to be reborn always as a female bodhisattva, but until samsara is no more. Later she starts meditating in a palace for nearly ten million years. Her power of these practices helped to heal the health issues of many people. Then, Tonyo Drupa, told her that she can manifest supreme bodhi in the upcoming world system as the Goddess Tārā.

Symbols and Associations:

Generally, the term Tārā's refers to "star" or "planet," and based on that, this goddess is connected with travel and navigation. The goddess is known as "she who saves" in Tibetan. While there are one hundred and eight names of Holy Tara, she is the 'Leader of the caravans ..... who showeth the way to those who have lost it'. However, she is known by the name Dhruva also. Remember that Dhruva is the Sanskrit name for the North Star. Miranda Shaw who considered motherhood as the central to Tara's conception, gave some titles to her including "loving mother," "supreme mother," "mother of the world," "universal mother" and "mother of all Buddhas."

Mostly she appeared with her blue or night lotus (utpala). These flowers release the fragrance when the moon appears. Therefore, it is considered that Tārā has connections with the moon & light. In addition, she is a forest goddess who appears in the form of Khadiravani , a "dweller in the Khadira forest." Her life is connected to plant life, flowers, acacia (khadira) trees, and the wind. As she is connected with nature and plants, she is known as a healing Deity. In addition, she is known as the deity of nurturing quality and fertility.

People have described her land in Mount Potala as covered with many manifold trees and creepers. While chirping of birds can be heard, the forest allows the people to enjoy the murmur of waterfalls. Different kinds of flower species can be seen growing everywhere.

Tara Emergence as a Buddhist Deity:

In Tibetan Buddhism, this goddess is renowned as the symbol of action and compassion and considered as the female aspect of Avalokiteśvara.

Finally, Avalokiteshvara reached the summit of Marpori, in Lhasa. We know the Marpori summit as the 'Red Hill' also. On Otang, he realized that the lake called the 'Plain of Milk’ looks like the Hell of Ceaseless Torment.

There, the myriad beings faced many challenges like burning, boiling, hunger, thirst, etc., but still, they did not perish, sending forth grievous cries of distress all the while.

Once he viewed this, his eyes filled with tears. Then, one drop of this tear from his right eye fell to the plain. As soon as the tear falls, it becomes the reverend Bhrikuti.

After the declaration of Bhrukuti, the princess got reabsorbed into Avalokiteshvara's right eye. Later, Bhrukuti was reborn as the Nepalese princess Tritsun. When a teardrop fell upon the plain from the left eye, it became Tara. After that, she was reabsorbed into the left eye of Avalokiteshvara.

The goddess Tārā appears in various forms. In Tibet, Green Tārā appeared as the Nepalese Princess named Bhrikuti. White Tārā appeared as the Chinese princess Kongjo (Princess Wencheng).

As a Saviouress:

The Statue of this deity, in Nepal, is20.25" tall and consists of gilt copper inset full of precious stones. While this goddess has several characteristics of the feminine principle, we know her as the Mother of Mercy and Compassion.

This goddess gives birth to compassion, warmth, and relief. She has the same sympathy as a mother for all her kids. The form Green Tārā protects all beings from unfortunate circumstances. On the other hand, White Tārā represents maternal compassion. She can heal the health issues of all beings, especially those who are wounded physically or mentally.

The form of Red Tārā lets us learn discriminating awareness about any incident and how to convert raw wishes into love & compassion. If it comes to talk about Blue Tārā (Ekajati), remember that this form is a protector in the Nyingma lineage. This form expresses a formidable, female energy that can be invoked for destroying dharmic obstacles. You should know that each form is linked to any color and energy. Every form includes feminine attributes.

Forms of Tara:

There are several forms of Tārā. We know Green Tārā as śyāmatārā. This form indicates peacefulness and enlightened activity. It is the central aspect of Tārā from which all forms emanate. We know the Green form as Khadiravaṇi-Tārā, also known as Tārā of the acacia forest. She came to Nagarjuna in South India's Khadiravani forest to protect all beings from eight fears. Mārīcī and Ekajaṭā, her two attendants, give her accompany.

Sarvajnamitra says that this goddess has a universal form also, and we call it visva-rupa. This form encompasses living beings. There are other forms of Tārā also including:-

White Tārā (Sitatārā): 

We call the form The Wish-fulfilling Wheel, or Cintachakra, whom we know as the deity of healing and compassion. In this form, we can see that her two arms are seated on a white lotus, whereas the eyes are on hands and feet. The third eye is on the forehead, due to which she is called "Seven eyed."

Pravīratārā: 

She appears in a red-colored form where she holds a bell and vajra, bow and arrow, wheel, conch, sword, and noose in her eight arms. We know her as "Tārā Swift and Heroic" also.

Kurukullā (Rigjema): 

It is a form of red color and fierceness that can magnetize good things.

Black Tārā (Ugra Tārā): 

She is famous for power.

Yellow Tārā or Golden colored Tārā: 

These have connections with wealth and prosperity. Yellow Cintamani Tārā is considered a "Wish-Granting Gem Tara" because she is holding a wish-granting jewel. Besides, there is another form "Vajra Tārā" with eight arms. The other form, golden "Rajasri Tārā" , holds a blue lotus.

Blue Tārā (Ekajati): 

In this form, she has a lot of heads and hands, referring to a connection with the transmutation of anger. A few authors said that this form has similarities to Ugra Tārā and Ekajati.

Cintāmaṇi Tārā: 

At the Highest Yoga Tantra level in the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism, this form of Tārā is worshipped. This form is portrayed in green color.

Sarasvati (Yangchenma): 

This form is renowned for arts, knowledge, and wisdom.

Bhṛkuṭītārā (Tronyer Chendze): 

She is known as "Tārā with a Frown." This form is renowned for protecting from the spirits.

Uṣṇīṣavijaya Tārā: 

This form is called White Tārā or "Victorious Uṣṇīṣa." Hence, she has three faces and 12 hands in this form. Remember that this form symbolizes long life.

Golden Prasanna Tārā: 

In this form, she wore a necklace of bloody heads. Besides, in his 16 hands, she holds many weapons and Tantric attributes.

Yeshe Tsogyal: 

She is known as "Wisdom Lake Queen" in this form.

Rigjay Lhamo: 

We know her as "Goddess Who Brings Forth Awareness."

Sitatapatra Tārā: 

She protects against supernatural danger.

Conclusion:

The Tibetian branch of Vajrayana Buddhism worships this meditation deity, Tara, for developing inner quality. Moreover, this deity is worshipped for understanding inner, outer, and secret teachings like compassion known as Karunā, loving-kindness known as mettā, and emptiness known as shunyata. You can understand the depth of the term Tārā by realizing various aspects of the same quality. The reason for this is we often consider bodhisattvas as the personifications of Buddhist methods.

There is a text named Praises to the Twenty-One Taras, which is a vital text in Tibetan Buddhism. Tantra is one of the essential texts that describes All the Functions of Tara, Mother of All the Tathagatas. For both Hindus and Buddhists, the primary Tārā mantra is the same, which is: oṃ tāre tuttāre ture svāhā. Buddhists & Tibetans follow the Tibetan traditions and pronounce them as oṃ tāre tu tāre ture soha. If it comes to talk about the the literal translation, the answer will be O Swift One, So Be It!"

Frequently Asked Questions:

Q. What is Tara the goddess of?

In Buddhism, people worship the Goddess Tara as the goddess of compassion and protection. In Hinduism, the goddess appears in a primordial female energy form and we know her as shakti. The root of the word tara is the Sanskrit word "Tar" which indicates "protection." But in other languages, the term means "star."

Q. Why is Tara important for Buddhists?

She is a saviour deity liberating souls from suffering.

Q. Is Tara a Buddhist?

She is a Buddhist goddess and saviour, Tibetan Sgrol-ma, who has many forms. She is mainly renowned in Nepal, Tibet, and Mongolia.

Lycurgus Cup - History Mystery

The question that may come to your mind is if the old Romans were ahead of their period or not. Hence, the famous Lycurgus Cup in the British Museum proves that Romans were highly advanced and talented in science, mainly in the Nanotechnology field.

What makes the 1,600-year-old glass goblet unique is that its color changes from green to red, but it depends on the direction of its illumination. If the light source is on the front, it will appear green. But when the light source is at the rear side, it will change to red. We know this incident as Dichroic behavior.

It is believed that the Roman craftsman had a deep knowledge of the science they used to make the artwork. The Romans were the first who accidentally discover the colorful potential of nanoparticles. But we must accept that they have made the world's best instance of the phenomenon.

You should know that the Lycurgus Cup is a 4th-century artifact to design in which dichroic glass is used. Depending on the passing through of light, it shows a different color. Remember that this one is the only Roman glass object design in which this kind of glass is used. People described it as the "most spectacular glass" of that time.

What is the Lycurgus Cup?

The glass chalice is known as the Lycurgus Cup. Behind its name and design is a myth involving King Lycurgus of Thrace (Balkan Peninsula).

In this regard, you need to know one thing: Lycurgus was a violent-tempered man who was behind the attack on the god of wine, Dionysius, and Ambrosia, a female follower of Dionysius.

Mother Earth called Ambrosia, and later she transformed Ambrosia into a vine. After that, she had coiled herself about the king. This coiling scene was captured on the Cup.

The change of green color to red indicates the red blood of Ambrosia. Besides, it can represent the red wine of Dionysius, the god of wine. On the flip side, the green refers to the ultimate triumph of Ambrosia. The vase indicates that Mother Earth saved the girl from Lycurgus and his evil behavior.

This cage cup comes with an outer cage and an inner glass. First, the artist cast a thick blank glass. Then, he had cut and grounded it. The process will continue until the figures are in high relief. Next, the artist needs to ground up gold & silver into nanograins to create the changing colors on the artifact. These grains should be finer than even sand. After that, he needs to fuse these proportionally into the glass to produce subatomic effects. Scientists still haven't found out how it was accomplished.

The Roman chalice, which is 1600 years old and now placed at the British Museum, is the key to the new technology which can be used to diagnose several human diseases.

What does Lycurgus Cup mean?

We call this cup "dichroic glass." "Dichroic" refers to "two colors" in Greek. The Romans are experts in the art of creating one color on a goblet while a specific light and different color will be seen in a different light but in the same goblet.

People believe it can change colors when you pour different substances into it. Thus, the artifact can detect temperatures. So naturally, nano technicians are excited after seeing these chances of old technology.

Like other medical and advanced technologies, Lycurgus Cup nanotechnology has both good and bad sides. However, when it comes to discussing its drawback, it is suspected that it can lead to abortion and euthanasia. Whereas this technology can be used to cure diseases. Besides, to recognize microbes and clean up water sources, it can be used. These are the benefits of this technology.

Romans used excellent techniques to make their wonders last for years. But once Rome died, the Dark Ages began. As a result, we saw that cement and indoor toilets were no more because these went away for more than 1,400 years. In addition, the Cup lets us know that humans can experience more than what they could have imagined.

If you see the Cup in reflected light, like in a flash photograph, the glass will appear green in color. But if you view it in transmitted light, the glass will look red.

Basically, this Cup is a rare example of a Roman cage cup or diatretum. To design the Cup, artists need to work hard as they need to cut the glass efficiently. Whereas they need to leave a decorative "cage" at the surface level.

In most cases, we can see cage cups come with a geometric abstract designed cage. Whereas the figure on this artifact displays the killing incident where Lycurgus attempted to kill Ambrosia. Later, she got transformed into a vine which has twined around the angry king and killed him. Whereas Dionysus, with two followers, were seen taunting the king.

The glass offers the dichroic effect because it is made up of nanoparticles of gold and silver in a small ratio. Although the process was not cleared. However, it is suspected that it was discovered due to accidental "contamination" with a little bit of ground gold and silver dust.

Although the glass-makers were confused about whether gold was involved in making it or not, as the quantity of gold was very little, it is suspected that they may have come from a tiny proportion of gold in silver added (most of the Roman silver ornaments contains little proportions of gold), or from traces of gold or gold leaf left accidentally in the workshop, as residue on tools, or from other work.

History of the Lycurgus Cup:

It was probably made in Alexandria or Rome around 290-325 AD. The size of this artifact is 6 1/2" x 5," and we are telling the measurement after judging it in the best condition. People probably never buried this because they kept it like a treasure. The Cup was placed in a noble Roman's villa first. After that, people placed it in a church and the elite's collections. Besides, according to a few people, it was recovered from a sarcophagus. Some people believe that the Cup was stolen from the church during the French Revolution. However, none of us know its original history.

The Science Behind the Chalice:

In French writings in 1845, we can find its mention. But we do not know why the item changed colors. The gold Nanoparticles on a microscopic level were behind the reason for the color change.

Hence, remember that the puzzle behind the incident of color Changing was not solved by scientists for decades. However, It was the 1950s when the British Museum acquired this Cup, but they were not capable of solving the mystery until 1990.

Then, researchers used broken fragments to examine these under an electron microscope. According to them, the Roman artisans were the pioneers of nanotechnology. As per their statement, Nano-particles of gold is the reason behind the color changing of the Cup.

As per the researchers, the particles are as small as 50 nm in diameter. It is less than one-thousandth of the size of a grain of table salt. Ian Freestone, the archaeologist at University College London, says that the existence of the exact mix of valuable metals indicates the amazing work of the Romans.

As soon as light hits, electrons of the metal flecks try to reflect the frequencies into human eyes. However, the color-changing process depends on the observer's position in relation to the light.

Was the Lycurgus Cup a Poison Detector?

According to the ruling class, glassware and goblets were created on Murano island in the Venice lagoon. These will be shattered if you pour poison into them.

Gang Logan Liu is a renowned engineer at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He focused on discovering the process of using this nanotechnology to diagnose and treat diseases. And he said that when it comes to beautiful art, Romans know how to use nanoparticles very well. But, he added that we all want to make it a part of scientific applications. For example, he said that if you fill a nano-treated vessel with different liquids, the vibrating electrons can change the glass color, but it is based on the liquid type used.

Were there Other Dichroic Cups in the Ancient World?

Yes, there could be other Dichroic Cups, and the ruling class was expected to be conscious of these. It is suspected that they were the owners of the cups. Besides, they gave these as gifts and used them to drink on special occasions. But there are only a few Roman dichroic glass objects. However, less than ten dichroic glass objects are found.

Privileged Romans purchased these objects to enjoy the rarity of the products of changing color.

The bottom line:

From Vopiscus' life of the third-century pretender Saturninus, a letter that is claimed to be written by emperor Hadrian (117–138), we have come to know a few facts regarding this. First, these texts represent similar drinking vessels like the Lycurgus Cup. The second text lets us think about the artifact from the drinker's perspective.

According to a drinker, it was full of dark red wine while the outer part was green. Once the drinker lifts the glass and peers into it, the light source will be passed from the rear side. Then, it will look like the grapes have turned red. It is an artifact from Roman royalty, and people have been caring for it for the last 1600 years until modern scientists solved the puzzle.

Romans might know how to create nanoparticles and use them to make the beautiful artifact. However, according to modern scientists, nanotechnology is helpful in chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering.

Frequently Asked Questions:

Q. How does the Lycurgus Cup work?

This old glass artifact displays dichroism because it can look green if you reflect white light. Whereas the color turns into red if you transmit white light through it. Remember that the peculiar dichroic effect is seen due to silver & gold nanoparticles that are available in the glass.

Q. Where was the Lycurgus Cup found?

It is suspected that the manufacturing location of this Cup was Rome, and the time was the fourth century AD. Currently, this one is housed in the British Museum, London.

Q. How did they make the Lycurgus Cup?

Researchers could not put liquid into this artifact, due to which small wells were imprinted onto a plastic plate by them. In addition, they have used sprays of gold or silver nanoparticles on wells.